ABSTRACT
Upconverting nanoparticles are essential in modern photonics due to their ability to convert infrared light to visible light. Despite their significance, they exhibit limited brightness, a key drawback that can be addressed by combining them with plasmonic nanoparticles. Plasmon-enhanced upconversion has been widely demonstrated in dry environments, where upconverting nanoparticles are immobilized, but constitutes a challenge in liquid media where Brownian motion competes against immobilization. This study employs optical tweezers for the three-dimensional manipulation of an individual upconverting nanoparticle, enabling the exploration of plasmon-enhanced upconversion luminescence in water. Contrary to expectation, experiments reveal a long-range (micrometer scale) and moderate (20%) enhancement in upconversion luminescence due to the plasmonic resonances of gold nanostructures. Comparison between experiments and numerical simulations evidences the key role of Brownian motion. It is demonstrated how the three-dimensional Brownian fluctuations of the upconverting nanoparticle lead to an "average effect" that explains the magnitude and spatial extension of luminescence enhancement.
ABSTRACT
Core-shell nanoparticles operating by infrared-to-visible energy upconversion (UCNPs) have been proposed as theranostic carriers for photosensitizers to increase deep-tissue penetration of photodynamic therapy against tumors and bacterial infections. Herein we present a series of core-shell mesoporous silica-coated NaYF4:Yb:Er UCNPs (mSiO2@UCNP) with different surface functionalizations to enhance bacterial targeting and loaded with the hydrophobic photosensitizer SiPc (silicon 2,9,16,23-tetra-tert-butyl-29H,31H-phthalocyanine dihydroxide) to boost the bactericidal effect against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria upon near-infrared irradiation. Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) from the UCNP core to loaded SiPc was facilitated, while its efficiency depended on UCNP shell functionalization, which influences the SiPc penetration depth into the mesoporous silica, constituting a convenient tool to modify FRET intensity. Functionalized UCNPs displayed dark toxicity toward Gram-negative E. coli of up to 5 orders of magnitude, while Gram-positive S. aureus viability was not decreased in the dark, offering practical means for discriminating between the two bacterial strains. Directly exciting SiPc on the UNCP led to complete eradication of E. coli and a drastic decrease of colony-forming units of S. aureus of up to 7 orders of magnitude. With this study, we demonstrate strategies to potentiate antimicrobial photodynamic therapy on nanoparticular structures that can lead to next-generation photosensitizing systems based on UCNPs to help encounter and eradicate resistant bacteria, as well as for theranostics and future in vivo applications.
